the-psoriasis-treatment

You gotta have water, but don't drink so much so quickly and be sure you're getting enough electrolytes. Proper hydration and intake of electrolytes are necessary for maintenance of homeostasis. And severe water and electrolyte loss can occur due to excessive sweating, vomiting or diarrhea. If water is replaced by plain water without electrolytes, then body fluids can become even more dilute. For this reason, oral rehydration therapy solutions include a small amount of table salt to avoid body fluid dilution. Water intoxication occurs when a person consumes water steadily and faster than the kidneys can excrete the water or when renal function is poor. The water accumulates in the body, the excess causes cells to swell, which may produce convulsions, coma and death. No scientific consensus has been reached on how much water should be consumed daily. The safest recommendation is half your body weight in ounces (e.g. 100 lbs = 50 oz). Drink a little more if you're losing more

Who knew that when Procter and Gamble accidentally created Olestra by attaching up to eight fatty acids to regular table sugar, they had also created a monster? While the molecule tastes and looks like fat to the human eye, in the body its freakishly spiderlike structure can't be broken down at all, thus, the intestine cannot absorb it for caloric energy. After a fatty meal, the body doesn't even really start digesting the triglycerides until they reach the small intestine (although there is a bit done by saliva and stomach fluid) [1]. As fats reach the duodenum, they form into large globules that stimulate secretion of bile from the liver that emulsifies them into tiny globules or droplets [1p716]. A protein called colipase binds to the droplets, which allows various enzymes called lipases secreted by the pancreas to access them more easily [1p779]. Lipases hydrolyze triglycerides freeing a couple of the fatty acids from their glycerol backbone so that both the monoglyceride a

Once you've finished gorging yourself on turkey and pie and have decided to burn off that extra "fuel" by shopping non-stop (as an aerobic workout) on Black Friday morning, remember that you have your cells' mitochondria to thank [1]. The mitochondria house the enzymes and conditions necessary for aerobic respiration via the citric acid cycle [1p761-2]. Just a couple of turns of the cycle and the food you eat can give you double the energy than what the cell can produce under anaerobic conditions of glycolysis and the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex [1p761-2]. But the citric acid cycle also does so much more. In the same oxygen-requiring breath of turns, the citric acid cycle makes up molecular precursors or "building blocks" needed by the body [2]. Like glycolysis this role gives the citric acid cycle amphibolic status that includues both catabolism of food and anabolism, or biosynthesis [1p770]. In fact, we owe the citric acid cycle thanks for biosynthesiz

If it wasn't for its high content of cholesterol, egg yolks would be regarded more strongly as one of nature's health powerhouses [1]. And, if regularly eaten, the egg would go a long way of ensuring against different nutritional deficiencies [1]. Hope has come for a more incredible, edible egg... If soluble fiber and red yeast rice works on humans to lower cholesterol, why not chickens? They do. Soluble fiber has been shown to significantly impact the amount of total cholesterol in eggs [2]. And a study in China revealed that chickens fed red yeast rice produced egg yolks with significantly less triglycerides and LDL cholesterol [3]. In addition, eggs fortified with omega-3 oils are now a popular marketplace novelty and a welcome approach. Although omega-3 fortification won't change egg cholesterol content, it may help improve its profile for heart health [4]. Contrary to popular opinion, switching to quail eggs would not be beneficial since their cholesterol content is

When total cholesterol begins to creep up past 200 mg/dL, it's time to change diet [1]. If it reaches 240 mg/dL or higher, then the body is at high risk of coronary artery disease and cardiac death [1]. The risk is only accentuated if LDL cholesterol is higher than 160 mg/dL and HDL cholesterol is lower than 40 mg/dL (50 for women) [1]. So, what can be done? Takng cholestyramine and colestipol will help promote excretion of bile [2]. The "statins" atorvastatin, lovastatin and simvastatin can block key enzymes that synthesize cholesterol [2]. Even niacin in the form of nicotinic acid can help through its effects on widening blood vessels [3]. But the benefits of these drugs and the vitamin are extremely limited, because if treatment is stopped, cholesterol can and probably will go back up again unless there is a change of diet [4]. The drugs can also have possible side effects such as liver damage, muscle pain and break down, and kidney problems [4]. A change in diet and

You could be a politician or you could have emphysema. The disorder usually is due to years of irritation from cigarette smoke, but anyone could get emphysema if exposed to years of air pollution or exposure to industrial dust [1p887]. The long-term irritation and resulting inflammation damages or destroys the walls of air sacs in the lungs [2]. The loss of elasticity causes bronchioles to collapse and air becomes trapped in the air sacs, over-stretching them and not allowing full ability to exhale [2]. The air sacs can rupture and the lung is left with abnormally large air spaces that stay filled with air [2]. Oxygen diffusion across the respiratory membrane is also reduced due to less surface area for gas exchange [1p887]. This limits the amount of oxygen in the blood and can result in leaving a person breathless even during mild exercise [1p887]. Symptoms are coughing, loss of appetite as well as fatigue [2]. Excessive mucus and inactivity of cilia–eventually allow irritants to dama

After a large meal and red wine some of the stomach acid produced can flow back into the esophagus due to a relaxed or weakened sphincter [1]. Lying down on the couch is a bad idea since it probably would make the acid backup worse [2]. The resulting heartburn causes the primary symptoms, which is a burning pain in the chest under the breastbone [2]. Heartburn can happen occasionally to almost anyone, but if the symptoms become frequent, then the heartburn may be related to gastroesophageal reflux disease [2]. You can drink some baking soda mixed with cream of tartar and water as a temporary measure, then think about changing your diet to smaller meals and losing some fat [2]. Home remedies might help. Digestive enzymes help to get the digestive process moving more quickly. Increasing fiber absorbs acid and gas. Tea soothes the stomach and gets things going. You can also try ginger. 1. Tortora, GJ, Derrickson, B. Principles of Anatomy and Physiolog y, 11th ed; 2006. New York: John Wile

Orange juice delivers a potent dose of what is roughly half glucose and half fructose [1]. Glucose, we know, is the simple sugar that serves as the primary source of fuel to the blood, brain and muscle [2p735]. Its intake stimulates the release of insulin, goes through glycolysis to create energy, and is used to synthesize of glycogen for storage [2p735]. Fructose does not stimulate the release of insulin, nor does it enter glycolysis in the same way as glucose [3]. In fact it enters glycolysis a few steps later after going through its own metabolism. After being transported to the liver, fructose is phosphorylated by fructokinase to form fructose 1-phosphate, then by aldolase B to dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde [3p58]. Glyceraldehyde is phosphorylated to glyceraldehydde 3-phosphate, and this molecule along with dihydroxyacetone enter glycolysis [3p58]. In the muscle, fructose is phosphorylated by hexokinase to fructose 6-phosphate, which is then used for glycogenesis o

Your brain, blood and muscles depend almost entirely on dietary glucose as a fuel source so your body must store the sugar for continual supply [1p733]. If you go without eating for a while or jog a mile or two you’ll find yourself relying on glycogen for energy [1p733]. The long-branched glucose polymer acts as a store of glucose molecules, ready for the moment’s need [1p733]. But imagine having inherited a defective gene that resulted in not allowing your body to degrade glycogen stores. If it wasn’t for Mendelian genetics, von Gierke’s disease may never have been completely understood [2]. Also called type 1 glycogen storage disease, the inherited disorder was found in 1952 using Mendel’s principles to result from a defective gene that causes the lack of glucose-6-phosphate [2 & 1p740]. The enzyme is necessary for catalyzing the final step in gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis, which is needed for synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrates precursors and removal of glucose from

It was good to learn a bit about breast cancer, especially considering that I walked for breast cancer just recently and was among many breast cancer survivors. Now I know a little more about what their lives are like. A little history lesson summarized (see source below): Breast cancer dates back to 1600 BC (as far as we know) in ancient Egypt. The Egyptians used to cauterize the tumors. The first surgeries removing lymph nodes didn't occur until the early 1800s. In 1882 the first mastectomies occurred, particularly the radical mastectomy. The procedure was popular up until the 1970s and is still common. One in 12-13 women will suffer from breast cancer. Research continues to find a cure. Source: http://www.syl.com/articles/thehistoryofbreastcancerfightingthemostcommoncancerinwomen.html David

We may soon see drugs that can help prevent the spread of breast cancer. Last year in April it was found that breast cancers produce an overabundance of the protein Akt, which plays a key role in metastasis.(1) Akt's role was tested by researchers who bred mice with a missing gene for Akt.(1) Mice with no copies of the gene for Akt rarely developed tumors, those with only one copy of the gene for Akt developed some tumors, while mice with two copies of the gene developed cancer rapidly.1 The research could potentially lead to drugs that target this protein in humans.(1) Reference 1. Thomas Jefferson University (2007, April 11). Scientists Identify Protein Key To Breast Cancer Spread, Potential New Drug Target. ScienceDaily. Retrieved November 16, 2008, from http://www.sciencedaily.com­ /releases/2007/04/070409181641.htm

Due to the presence of breast cancer, Mrs. Franco had a right radical mastectomy in which her right breast and underlying muscle, right axillary lymph nodes and vessels were removed. Now she is experiencing swelling in her right arm Why did the surgeon remove lymph tissue as well as the breast? Why is Mrs. Franco's right arm swollen? Radical mastectomy is now rarely performed and only used in cases of extensive tumors or cancer cells that have invaded the chest wall (1). In this case, the cancer may have moved into lymph nodes under the arm and in the chest muscle.(2) The spread of the cancer would have occurred via metastasis, cells traveling through the lymph or blood and establishing new tumors wherever they lodge (3p811). The right arm is swollen due to lymphedema, which is an accumulation of lymph in lymphatic vessels (3p841). If the swelling comes with tenderness and redness and she is feeling a fever come on, it is possible that infection may have occurred.(4) She should see

Just reading and writing about blood loss has made me feel a little lightheaded, and then I realized where I'd seen the term hypoxia. Hypoxia can occur at high altitudes, especially if scuba diving at high altitudes, because the air has less pressure than at sea level and you inhale less oxygen.(1) To prevent hypoxia while scuba diving at high altitudes (which could kill you), you should take a few days to acclimatize yourself to thinner air, make sure you don't over-exert yourself underwater, catch your breath regularly, and rise to the survace slowly.(1) Reference 1. http://www.ehow.com/how_2238064_prevent-hypoxia-scuba-diving.html

A gunshot wound and bleeding is sure to cause hypovolemic shock due to blood loss, external and internal (1p756). The body is generating the response as part of a negative feedback system that is attempting to correct the problem (1p756): - Low systolic blood pressure is due to reduced amount of blood. - Rapid heart rate is caused by sympathetic increase of blood levels of epinephrine and norepinephrine. - Weak, rapid pulse is due to reduced amount of blood and cardiac output. - Reduced blood flow to kidneys causes secretion of antidiuretic hormone that increases water reabsorption and causes blood vessel constriction by secreting renin. - The thirst is due to loss of extracellular liquid. - Cool, pale, and clammy skin is due to the sympathetic constriction of blood vessels and stimulation of sweating. - The confused and disoriented mental state is because of reduced oxygen supply to the brian. An emergency room will need to stop the bleeding right away and replace loss of blood and f

B vitamins play a major role in producing energy in the cells, but they certainly aren't top gun. They are converted in the body to act as coenzymes. As coenzymes they have almost no independent catalytic power because they must rely on being temporarily bound as organic prosthetic groups to an apoenzyme, then called a holoenzyme (1p643). In a very complex reaction of three enzymes and five coenzymes, four B vitamin-derivative coenzymes act in synergy with yet another coenzyme (lipoamide) to produce pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (1p750). Thus, any deficiency of the four B vitamins—thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and pantothenic acid—could severely impact cellular respiration.(1p750) You could think of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex as a fighter jet equipped with B vitamin wingmen. The pilot is its substrate pyruvate, which later develops into that maverick of a central charcter in the citric acid cycle, acetyl CoA (1p751). Reference 1. Denniston KJ, Topping JJ, Caret RL. General, O

Need to lower the electric bill? You could learn a thing or two about conservation from your body's own cells. Each one possesses a highly evolved system of energy efficiency that consists of regulatory enzymes (1). These catalysts can be activated and deactivated depending on conditions in the cell (1p649-651). When strategically located as a first step or near-first step of a metabolic pathway, a regulatory enzyme acts as biochemical light switch.(2) The enzyme switches "on" and "off" effectively speeding up or slowing down pathway production and preventing any drain of effort.(2) An example of three regulatory enzymes in action can be found in glycolysis, the 10-reaction pathway used to produce energy from carbohydrates(1p726): 1. Hexokinase catalyzes the first reaction of the pathway and is inhibited by high concentration of its own product. 2. Phosphofructokinase, the key regulatory enzyme, catalyzes the third reaction and is allosterically inhibited by gl

Our bodies are not perfect. Far from it. In fact, they have serious flaws. Most importantly, its greatest flaw is that one day it will die. Over time evolution decided it preferred that humans die so those younger, stronger kids can take over eating, mating, etc. You and I may not be OK with dying. If we pour effort or money into anything, it should be in trying to keep ourselves living longer. Live long and forever, if at all possible. Gosh, I think I'll have to dedicate my life to learning about longevity. Most of all, longevity of the brain. The way I se it, if my brain goes, I pretty much am done too. Gotta study longevity, brain health, etc.

Ciara is driving home from school, listening to her favorite music, when a dog darts into the street in front of her car. She manages to swerve to avoid hitting the dog. As she continues on her way she notices her heart is racing, she has "goose-bumps" and her hands are sweaty. When the dog darted in front of Clara's car, her body went through a sympathetic "fight-or-flight" response, which is an inborn, automatic effect that can occur under conditions of acute stress.(1&2) The effects may have also included pupils dilating, airways to her lungs dilating, blood vessels to her kidneys and gastrointestinal tract constricting, blood vessels involved in exercise to fight off danger dilating, release of glucose by the liver, liver cells performing glycogenolysis.(1p537) The effect is triggered by acetylcholine released from sympathetic nerves, which can activate many tissues simultaneously.(1p537 & 2) A release of adrenaline and norepinephrin from the medulla

Sounds really creepy, but it's true. And we count on all our little friends to keep us healthy, keeping our gastrointestinal tract functioning and absorbing minerals well, and producing the critical vitamin K that is so important to our lives. Vitamin K, made by the large intestine flora, is vital for synthesis of clotting factors that make up normal blood clotting. It also helps inhibit osteoporosis by keeping calcium out of your arteries and in your bones. So next time you need to get rid of an infection and are on antibiotics, be sure to repopulate and grow your gut flora with probiotics and prebiotics to keep yourself healthy long-term.

It was the hottest of times, it was the coldest of times, and it was billions of years before the French revolution when one bacterial strain became two and possibly a few more.1p630 One of these strains would thrive in what we now know to be the Arctic Cold.1p627 Another would survive in the vents of a volcano.1p627 Not so coincidentally, both strains depend on vital functions of hexokinase.1p627 Normally hexokinase would become denatured while exposed to hot, molten rock.1p627 How does the volcano strain survive? The answer lies in significantly more R group interactions of amino acids found in holding its tertiary structure together.1p630 These noncovalent interactions play their role of stability via hydrogen bonding, ionic bonding and van der Waals forces.1p614 The extra support keeps hexokinase's globular protein alpha-helix and beta-pleated sheets from unfolding.1p609 Although perhaps not nearly complex as R group interactions, the bacterial strains would require another var

Lecithin provides choline, which is a precursor for the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the brain.(1) Choline is also necessary to remove fat from the liver.(2) Thus, supplementation could be extremely beneficial for alcoholics to prevent against cirrhosis.(2) References 1. http://www.jacn.org/cgi/content/abstract/11/5/473 2. http://www.medschool.northwestern.edu/newsworthy/past-years/2002/2002H-May/choline.htm

Lecithin's talent comes from its amphipathic nature.(1) The compound's hydrophilic polar head dissolves in water while its hydrophobic polar tail dissolves in the triglycerides, thus, acting in a way of suspending triglycerides in water.(1p568) As an emulsifier in ice cream, lecithin keeps ice cream smooth with fat globules evenly distributed throughout the solution.(2) It serves to bring fat and ice crystals together, which normally don't mix. Before commercial lecithin was available, egg yolks were used.(2) Another useful application: Want to know how to make your own salt air foam to a homemade margarita? The secret is soy lecithin. You can buy it at any health food store and mix about a teaspoon with water, salt and lime juice. Reference 1. Denniston, KJ, Topping, JJ & Caret, RL. General, Organic, And Biochemistry, 5th ed. New York: McGraw Hill; 2007, p568. 2. Halford, B. Ice cream: The finer points of physical chemistry and flavor release make this favorite treat

There might be a Darwinian explanation. According to Meninger clinic researchers, lower blood LDL cholesterol may be a signal for famine, which led to an adaptation of a response of more aggressive behavior.(1) Of course I think this is a pretty far-reaching hypothesis, but it's interesting. Reference Erickson, MT. Lowered serum cholesterol, famine and aggression : a Darwinian hypothesis. Available at: http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=2872688. Accessed on November 2, 2008.

Blood omega-3 oils could be just as or more important than blood LDL cholesterol levels. Last week I attended a conference in Las Vegas where I heard a cardiologist say bluntly that doctors need to be retrained to stop limiting their focus to blood LDL cholesterol for preventing heart disease and start using the novel Omega-3 Index. What's that? According to a 2004 article in Preventative Medicine, the index serves as a "novel, physiologically relevant, easily modified, independent, and graded risk factor for death from CHD that could have significant clinical utility."(1) The Omega-3 Index is used as a biomarker to measure the percentage of EPA and DHA omega-3 fatty acids in the blood cell membranes.(2) The omega-3 oils replace other fatty acids.(2) A high value of omega-3 oils is linked to reduced risk of cardiovascular disease as well as other benefits.(2) A value of 8 percent or above in omega-3 oils can mean a 90 percent reduced risk of sudden cardiac death.(2) Refe

I am a bit stunned by argument for consuming cholesterol by cholesterol-promoters cholesterol-and-health.com because the body makes all the cholesterol it needs (about a gram a day)and a dietary amount is unnecessary.(1) For this reason, I'm not sure I can bring myself to call the lipid a nutrient . While it is true that cholesterol-rich foods such as eggs may be considered good for the body and could even reduce risk heart disease, these benefits are not attributed to their cholesterol amounts, but to other nutrients that come with the cholesterol.(2) From what I can gather, the only real reason for seeking out dietary cholesterol is if a person has a genetic disorder that would interfere with the body's own cholesterol production.(3) References 1. American Heart Association. Cholesterol. Available at: http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4488. Accessed on November 1, 2008. 2. Harvard's School of Public Health. Nutrition Source: Eggs and heart disease.

More than 50 years have gone by since it was first discovered that too much LDL cholesterol in the blood is linked to heart disease, and, in response, healthcare professionals of all kinds have provided a simple message: "cholesterol is bad".(1) More recent research, however, tells a different story -- that eggs, liver, shrimp and lobster are not the demons they were once thought to be.(1) Most people who eat these cholesterol-rich foods will find they have little or no impact on blood cholesterol levels.(1) This is good news for the average man who eats 337 milligrams and average woman who eats 217 milligrams daily.(2) Why then do the American Heart Association and many informed healthcare professionals still recommend intake of cholesterol be no more than 300 milligrams?(2) Reason 1: Dietary cholesterol comes from animal foods usually along with saturated fat.(2) Both saturated fat and trans fat have a significant impact on higher amounts of LDL cholesterol in the blood.(2)

The ultra-frequent pit stops will drive you nuts (even if he's your beloved grandpa). Buy grandpa a plane ticket! Excessive thirst and urination signals uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, diabetic ketoacidosis or diabetes insipidus.(1) Urinalysis and blood testing are meant to detect the first two conditions.(2&3) When blood testing shows normal glucose levels and there is no presence of ketones in the urine, then diabetes insipidus is diagnosed.(1&2) Diabetes insipidus is a condition that occurs when the kidneys cannot conserve water properly.(3) The cause is a defect in antidiuretec hormone receptors or an inability to secrete antidiuretic hormone.(4p659) The hormone, produced by the hypothalamus and stored and released by the pituitary gland, cause the kidneys to return more water to the blood.(4p631-3) Without the hormone working properly, urination increases substantially.(4p633) References 1. MedlinePlus. Urination - excessive volume. Available at: http://www.nlm.nih.gov

A non-invasive, five- to 10-minute opthalmoscopic examination can reveal: Hypertension - Detected by swelling of the optic nerve and visual center of the retina can, hypertension is caused from narrowing arteries and amount of blood pumped by the heart.(2&3) If hypertension is not controlled it can lead to permanent damage to the optic nerve or macula. Decreasing salt intake, eating healthy, physical activity and even supplementation with omega-3 oils or coenzyme Q10 can improve conditions.(3) Diabetes mellitus and diabetic retinopathy - Diabetes is a condition whereby the body is resistant to insulin or cannot produce sufficient insulin.(4) It can lead to spots floating in vision, blurred vision, dark streaks or a red film blocking vision, poor night vision and diabetic retinopathy. The latter is detected using a dye to spot bleeding from blood vessels in the center of they eye.(5) Cataracts - Detected by examining abnormalities in the cornea, iris, lens, and the space between the

Alpha tocopherol is a type of vitamin E that exists naturally as d-alpha tocopherol, but supplement manufacturers also market synthetic "mirror image" l-alpha tocopherol as well as a mixture of d- and l-alpha tocopherol. The synthetic kind and the mix are cheaper, but l-alpha tocopherol has little or no actual vitamin E activity in the body. It may interfere with d-alpha tocopherol activity and there's no long-term safety data. When buying vitamin E supplements, be sure to choose d-alpha tocopherol along with other natural tocopherols such as beta-, gamma- and delta-. Reference 1. Gaby, A. Does high-dose vitamin E kill people? Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients. Available at: http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0ISW/is_259-260/ai_n10299312/pg_2. Accessed on Oct. 25, 2008.

You may or may not remember last year's landmark four-year study related to Alzheimer's disease sponsored by the Italians. The study appeared in December's issue of Neurology . I found a link to an article about it below. In summary it showed that elderly people (over 65) who regularly walk significantly lower risk of vascular dementia.(1) Thus there is a lot of talk about physical activity, like walking, as having a potential effect for reducing risk of Alzheimer's disease.(1) Because walking and other activity increases oxygen in the brain, it may be directly improve memory.(1) Suggestion: Walk a mile or two before taking Anatomy and Physiology tests! Reference 1. American Academy of Neurology. Walking and moderate exercise help prevent dementia. ScienceDaily. Available at: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/12/071219202948.htm. Accessed on Oct. 18, 2008.

According to an article in the Scandinavian Journal of Nutrition (Scandinavia being where much of our purified fish oil supplements comes from), there is "mounting evidence" showing that fish oil DHA/EPA omega-3 fatty acids can be used in clinical treatment of ADHD.(1) Several studies have reported that supplementation with fish oil at high dosages (16g per day - that's really high) was shown to provide significant results in behavioral patterns.(2) References 1. Richardson, A.J. The importance of omega-3 fatty acids for behaviour, cognition and mood. Available at: http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/tandf/ssnu/2003/00000047/00000002/art00008. Accessed on Oct. 18, 2008. 2. Sorgi, P.J., Hallowell, E.M., Hutchins, H.L, & Sears, B. "Effects of an open-label pilot study with high-dose EPA/DHA concentrates on plasma phospholipids and behavior in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder." Journal of Developmental & Behavioural Pediatrics; 2007

Many of us will remember the scene in Kindergarten Cop when detective John Kimble (Arnold Schwarznegger) said he had a headache. "It might be a tumor," said Lowell, one of the kids. "It's not a tumor!" said John. Actually it may have been a tumor, or more correctly a brain tumor, since one of the symptoms is a headache.(1) Other symptoms would be poor balance and coordination, dizziness, double vision, slurred speech (still Arnold?), nausea and vomiting, fever, abnormal pulse, breathing rates, personality changes, numbness and weakness of the limbs (definitely not Arnold), and seizures.(1p518) What is a brain tumor? A brain tumor is an abnormal growth of tissue in the brain that could be malignant or benign, which are both equally serious because the tumor compresses adjacent tissues and causes a build-up of pressure in the skull.(1p518) Treatment Treatment for brain turmors, which can include surgery, radiation therapy and/or chemotherapy, can vary depending on

Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) is a carboxylic acid derivative while Tylenol (acetaminophen) is an amide derivative.(1p478, 506) Both act as analgesics for relieving pain and reducing fever. By inhibiting the enzyme cyclooxygenase in prostaglandin synthesis, aspirin reduces inflammation making it a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug.(1p478) In the stomach environment, the carboxylic acid derivative reacts directly with the stomach lining and can potentially cause bleeding.(2 & 3) Tylenol acts on nerve endings to suppress pain, but is not a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug.(3 & 1p506) In the stomach environment, because of its structure as an amide derivative, it doesn't react with the stomach lining and causes no bleeding.(2) References 1. Denniston, KJ, Topping, JJ & Caret, RL. General, Organic, And Biochemistry, 5th ed. New York: McGraw Hill; 2007. 2. Kleiner, K. Fatty molecules make aspirin easier to stomach. Available at: http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg14

Pregnant women need additional iron intake, but if the body controls absorption and uptake, then why is diet not enough? While it may be true that the diet doesn't provide enough, it may also include other factors beyond iron intake that may also affect women pre- and post-pregnancy. There are many dietary factors that can inhibit iron absorption.(1) Among these factors are: - polyphenols of gallic acid that are found in coffee and tea, - oxalic acid of spinach, chard, berries, chocolate and tea, - phytates found in legumes, - preservatives like EDTA, - phosvitin found in egg yolks; - and other minerals such as calcium, calcium phosphate salts, zinc, manganese, and nickel.(1p422) In addition, there are factors that enhance iron absorption. These include: - acids like ascorbic, citric, lactic and tartaric acid - sugars - meat, poultry and fish - and mucin.(1p422) When iron deficiency is a problem, thus, wisdom would suggest considering what is inhibiting absorption and what could be

I couldn't imagine why anyone would supplement with sodium. We do so much "supplementation" already with our salt shakers. All that shaking is linked to hypertension, but overall, when food is salted lightly, the salting may not be all bad. When you eat salt, it guards you against sodium deficiency. The deficiency is not as likely now, but in earlier days it may have been an issue and continues to be a problem with anorexia.(1) The deficiency's symptoms include nausea, muscle atrophy, poor growth and weight loss.(1p380) Plus, if the salt is iodized, then it helps guard against iodine deficiency. Iodine is extremely variable in foods so having it as part of salt is beneficial.(1p468) The thyroid collects the iodine, in its ionic form iodide, and uses it for genesis of hormones.(1p418) Reference 1. Gropper, S.S., Smith, J.L. & Groff, J.L. Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism, 4th ed; 2005. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.

Vitamin supplementation may have its place in clinical nutrition, but confusion of how or when to supplement can ultimately harm the consumer.(1) The confusion arises from "extreme" views of healthcare practitioners who say supplementation is not necessary at all and those who push for too much supplementation.(1p119) Non-credentialed experts and vitamins manufacturers interested in making profits may also lead consumers in the wrong paths.(1p119) Pros of Supplementation As a person ages or changes his or her diet or environment, vitamin needs can change resulting in a potential need for help from vitamin supplementation.(1p119) Supplementation can remove the guesswork out of making sure enough of a certain vitamin is in the diet. A woman, for example, who has a need for additional folic acid during times of pregnancy may choose supplementation rather than attempting to make significant changes to diet.(1p119) A child or adolescent can also be given supplements to be sure o

Going in with the gut, I'm led to deduce that health begins exactly there. The gut and other parts of the gastrointestinal system make up the basic conduit of nutrition.(1) Food eaten is broken down by the system into simpler substances, nutrients are absorbed and transported to cells, and then are metabolized for creation of new body substances or for energy. (1p58) Clinical Applications of Digestion, Metabolism and Absorption Clinical application begins with the knowledge of how the process of digestion works. A nutritionist can then begin applying solutions.(1p67) To help a patient limit burping, a nutritionist can suggest he or she avoid nervously gulping down carbonated beverages through a straw.(1p67) To limit flatulence in a patient, the nutritionist can recommend he or she limit fiber and slowly reintroduce it in the diet or take a lactase supplement before consuming milk.(1p67) Nutritionists can use diet therapy to also encourage absorption and metabolism of nutrients. An

An incredibly risky one? If you happen to drink methanol, then you'll end up in the emergency room with an IV intended to get you drunk as fast as possible.1 2 If the treatment isn't applied immediately you could end up blind or worse.1,2p426 Methanol may be good for certain racing cars, but it's toxic to human beings because the body's liver oxidizes it to produce formaldehyde.2p387,426 This particular aldehyde is highly reactive in the body, damaging cells and their vital proteins including DNA.2p426,4 Even the fumes of formaldehyde may be cancerous.1,3 Formaldehyde in the body will lead to loss of eyesight, respiratory failure, convulsions and death.2p426 To keep the liver from oxidizing methanol to formaldehyde, the ER personnel will use ethanol as a distraction.2p426 Ethanol, the by-product of yeast found in alcoholic drinks, is oxidized by the liver using the same enzyme that oxidizes methanol.2p387,426 In fact, it is preferred by the enzyme, which helps minimize

If you thought it interesting that women have less of aldehyde dehydrogenase, then you'll no doubt be interested to know that many Asians have a deficiency.(1) This is why Chinese, Japanese and Koreans can be much more sensitive to alcohol than Europeans and Americans of European ancestry.(1) You'll notice that Asians with this deficiency are susceptible to alcohol-induced flushing.(1) The adaptation that those of European ancestry have to be able to handle alcohol may be due differences of water intake in the continents, according to Sharon Moalem, Ph.D.(2) To reduce disease by avoiding pathogens in the water, early Asians boiled water for drinking tea.(2) Early Europeans, however, may have used fermentation so the alcohol would kill the pathogens.(2) 1. Wall, TL, Peterson, CM, Peterson, KP, Johnson, ML, Thomasson, HR, et al. Alcohol Metabolism in Asian-American Men with Genetic Polymorphisms of Aldehyde Dehydrogenase. Annals of Internal Medicine; September 2007:127(5)376-379.

Nothing else can stimulate the taste buds quite like the smell of fat. The human body comes adapted with a special affinity for this resource, according to evolutionary nutrition researchers S. Boyd Eaton, MD, and Stanley B. Eaton III (a father-son duo) (1998). Dr. Eaton and Eaton suggest early hominids eventually ate a greater amount of nuts and seeds and later, around 2.5 million years ago, humans on a hunter-gatherer diet might have preferred animal fat, specifically supplied in the brain and marrow—an alteration of diet that may have been a factor in supporting a larger brain (1998). This history of fat in the diet helps shape understanding of how vital fat is for the diet. The body needs fat for various functions as well as other fat-related substances in the family of lipids. Most lipids in the body are of a type called triglycerides—three fatty acids with a glycerol backbone—which act as concentrated sources of energy stored in greater amounts in adipose tissue cells (Tortora &a

After leading the fight against the Galactic Alliance, Luke Skywalker might have found himself with a developed case of osteoporosis and kidney stones. That's because space travel diminishes bone loss and a rise of calcium in the blood, according to NASA researchers (Hullander & Barry, 2001). The reason for the bone loss is weightlessness. When the body is weightless (or immobile), bone cells act differently. The International Osteoporosis Foundation states that astronauts and bedridden patients share a state in which they "can lose up to 15% of mineral density within three months" (Sochaczewski, 2006). According to NASA, the weightlessness upsets the balance of bone-building to bone destroying (Hullander & Barry, 2001.) Thirty million people on Earth who suffer from osteoporosis in the U.S.A. happen to be going through the same demineralization of the bone, although slower (Tortora & Derrikson, 2006, p. 189). The key to prevent osteoporosis on land and in spa

In today’s modern world, technology plays a predominant role in the lives of people. The computer is used for work and play. For many people, more time is spent in front of the monitor than anywhere else as a place to conduct business, go shopping, go to school, answer e-mails, converse with friends, and play video games. In conjunction to computer use, other technologies frequently used are digital phones, TV, and MP3 players. While all these facets of technology are seemingly advantageous, they do come with a downside. The body can show resistance to conforming to a technology-centered lifestyle by exhibiting signs of poor health and fitness. Depending on how technology is used daily, the body’s anatomy and/or internal organs are at risk of becoming distressed and the distress may eventually result in damage. These risks can come from lack of movement entirely due to little exercise or simple movements such as using a mouse or typing on a keyboard. Finally, distress may result simply

With good reason carbohydrates (carbs) are the staple fuel source for most diets in the world. Not only are they plentiful and cheap to produce—created by plant photosynthesis—but also utilized easily by the body. The body’s process, in fact, according to Staci Nix, MS, RD, CD, is “far more efficient than any man-made machine (2005, p.16). There are different types of carbs: the simple, which are quickly absorbed by the body, and the complex, which are more slowly absorbed. Simple carbs have one sugar molecule such as monosaccharides such as glucose, fructose and galactose, or disaccharides such as sucrose, lactose and maltose (Nix, 2005, pp. 16-17). The complex carbs (polysaccharides) include starches, glycogen, dietary fiber, cellulose, noncellulose polysaccharides and lignins. With the exception of dietary fiber and noncellulose polysaccharides, the body breaks down these carb types, turns them into glucose and distributes the glucose through blood circulation to all the cells that

Of the three types of skin cancer, melanoma is the most serious. It affects the melanocytes, which produce the pigment melanin that gives skin its color. The cancerous melanocytes do not die when they should (apoptosis) and form a cancerous mass. Melanoma can show up in a mole or other pigmented tissues such as the eye or intestines. According to the U.S. National Cancer Institute, more than 53,600 people find out they have melanoma each year. It is a figure that grows annually. The estimated amount of deaths is 8,420. Those at risk that have many moles, fair skin, personal history of skin cancer, family history of skin cancer, weakened immune system or have had at least one severe, blistering sunburn. To help prevent melanoma people should avoid midday sun, wear long sleeves, long pants and a wide-brim hat when outside, protect themselves from UV rays that penetrate clothing, windshields and windows, as well as those that are reflected by sand, water, snow and ice. Skin lotions, crea

Imagine you have been on a "bread and water" diet for three weeks and have noticed that a cut on your shin won't heal and bleeds easily. Why? The inability to heal would largely be due to lack of vitamin C. Proper maintenance and repair of tissue depends on this essential nutrient (Tortora & Derrikson, 2006). Once confirming a deficiency of vitamin C, assume signs of scurvy. According to Medline, along with skin hemmorrhages, general weakness, anemia, and gum disease. Just an orange a day is sufficient for preventing scurvy, according to researchers from University of Toronto (Weinstein, Babyn & Zlotkin, 2001). The vitamin C in the citrus fruit serve as the right treatment. My body would also need protein to produce healing. Nutrition consultant James Collier says the amino acids, along with vitamin C and zinc, are essential for the production of collagen and even a short duration of lack of protein can significantly slow healing (n.d.). Collier also suggests B vi

Marathon runners can become dehydrated due to the extreme physical activity. What types of fluids should they consume in order to rehydrate their cells? When you’re dehydrated, water is the hypotonic solution of choice for speedily moving via osmosis from blood directly into body cells that need rehydration (Tortora & Derrickson, 2006). Marathon runners, however, may need a little more solutes in the solution. The physical exertion of running can create need of other nutrients for these athletes. Regular sweating and using up of glycogen calls for needs of carbohydrates to maintain blood glucose and salts for proper balance of plasma osmalility (Chen & Zimmerman, 1978). Sports drinks can offer an answer for proper running, but too many solutes in a drink would stop its hydration ability. A good sports drink should remaining effective as a hypotonic solution, but still provide steady electrolytes, carbohydrates and possibly even vitamins. The extra sodium, according to British r

We may all be made of flesh and blood, but each one of us has a body with unique differences. These varying individual distinctions can call for custom measures when it comes to needs for health. For these reasons good clinicians can accept established dietary guidelines as a general route for a population to make sensible eating choices, but, when appropriate, offer a tailored alternative to provide best results for a patient. A suitable deviance from normal recommendations, for example, may be to take milk and cheese off the menu for patients of Native American and African ancestry. Lactose intolerance has been found by Cambridge researchers to affect these populations indiscriminately, which should lead clinicians to diverge from the US Department of Agriculture’s guidelines of dairy intake when caring for such affected patients (Scrimshaw & Murray, 1988). For others increasing dietary intake of dairy may be useful. An athletic patient seeking nutritional advice may find herself